It seems we have smallpox to thank for freedom of the press and some other innovations.

In 1721, a smallpox epidemic swept through the streets of Boston – the worst in the city’s history. Fatality rates rose to as high as 30 percent or worse. Native American populations were hit even harder, with rates up to 90 percent. How could anything good come from such a devastating disease?

In his book, “The Fever of 1721,” Stephen Coss claims that the Boston smallpox epidemic actually played a major role in stopping the spread of the disease, starting America’s first independent newspaper, and preparing the way for the American Revolution.

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The Zika virus is active in over 60 countries around the world.

Many of the disease’s dangerous effects on pregnant women are well known.

The mosquito-borne disease spreads from a pregnant mother to her fetus. While Zika virus can cause many severe brain defects, the most common is microcephaly.

Microcephaly causes a stunted growth for the baby’s brain and in turn, a much smaller head. Although microcephaly does not guarantee birth defects, it can be the source of an intellectual disability, seizures and loss of hearing or vision.

There is still much to learn about Zika’s consequences for newborns. But, we’ve barely scratched the surface when it comes to the effect on toddlers.

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Flu season is upon us and you only have to find a time and place to get your vaccine.

But, those are no longer the only things to consider with your annual flu shot.

Over the last five years there has been a flurry of new vaccines, giving you choices on how you want to fight influenza.

You can go with a run of the mill vaccine, but will that cover all of this year’s flu strains? The new flu shot covers all the strains, but what if you really hate needles? What if you want to avoid the egg protein that’s used to make the vaccine?

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Considered a landmark moment for mankind, the discovery of fire was the first step out of a primitive world. It lit the world, cooked our food and kept us warm at night.

It’s not all praise for fire though, as it may have also given the world tuberculosis.

Or at least born out of smoke, according to a recent study at the University of New South Wales.

The bacteria’s history traces back for millennia. Mummies from over 4,000 years ago showing signs of the infection in their chests. Tuberculosis spreads from person to person through the air. The mycobacterium that makes up the disease is inhaled and the infection infiltrates the lungs.

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Considered the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti is home to around 11 million people.

In January 2010, when the country was hit by a 7.0 magnitude earthquake, the effect was severe. The disaster left 220,000 dead and 3.5 million affected, with years of expected repair.

A cholera epidemic began later in 2010, partially due to the U.N.’s negligence during earthquake relief. This outbreak of the disease is still going strong today. It may even be resurgent with other natural disasters hitting the country.

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November is here and arriving with it are some freezing days and colder nights.

But, just because the temperature is dropping, doesn’t mean you have to resign yourself to wearing layers and shoveling snow. The winter months are great for an international getaway.

The Caribbean and Central America are abundant with stunning, warm weather places to visit during the cold season.

So, rather than resigning to life in freezing temperatures, here’s a few places to escape where the weather is far friendlier:

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All the countries to choose from in the world, and Canada still comes out on top.

The travel guide Lonely Planet released its list of Top Countries to Visit in 2017 and the Great White North took the top spot.

Lonely Planet credits Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, “dynamic cities that dominate global livability” and underrated wine for reasons to visit Canada. The country’s upcoming 150 year birthday puts the cherry on top for Canada to reign supreme.

But, just because Canada is such a welcoming country, doesn’t mean you should avoid the rest of the world.

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There are only a few days until Halloween and countless Canadians are finalizing their plans and finishing up costumes. But, Halloween is not the same spectacle around the world.

Other countries do have traditions to wear costumes and celebrate during the fall, they just aren’t focused on Halloween or All Hallows Eve.

Whether it’s The Festival of Masks or Teng Chieh, here are four ways the holiday is celebrated in other countries:

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Tuberculosis is often thought of as a plague of the past. It’s true that for many in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the dreaded “consumption” was a death sentence. The disease didn’t discriminate between the rich or the poor, young or old. In fact, it took the lives of some of the most iconic thinkers and artists of the past two centuries, including Frederic Chopin, Edgar Allen Poe, Emily Bronte, Eleanor Roosevelt, George Orwell and Vivien Leigh.

In his novel “Nicholas Nickleby,” Charles Dickens described consumption as a disease which “wealth never warded off,” and “in which death and life are so strangely blended, that death takes the glow and hue of life, and life the gaunt and grisly form of death.”

Patients lost weight and color, and carried handkerchiefs into which they coughed up blood.

Since the discovery of antibiotics streptomycin and isoniazid in 1944 and 1952, which were found to be effective in treating and preventing against the TB bacteria, the number of cases has decreased.

In the United States there has been on a sharp decline since 1992. With this big decline comes the misconception that the bacteria has been eradicated. This is not the case.

Though we don’t see the prevalence seen in the past, we are still at risk for tuberculosis infection. It’s important to understand tuberculosis and keep TB prevention in mind.

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Vaccinations almost seem like a simple math problem. Take the vaccine, add it to your body and there’s no risk of catching the disease for the rest of your life.

But a lot of the time, vaccines aren’t that simple.

Many vaccines require a booster shot after the initial dose to continue preventing the disease. The problem is, countless people ignore the need for a booster shot to stay disease-free in the future.

Why Are Booster Shots Necessary?

Some diseases are more resilient than others. Over time the body can lose the antibodies first provided by a vaccination, leaving it open to the disease once again. After an initial vaccination, the body sometimes needs a wake-up call to continue preventing a disease in the form of a booster shot.

Without these reminders via boosters, there can be resurgent outbreaks of the disease.

Take Russia’s diphtheria outbreak in the early 1990’s.

Diphtheria was an epidemic throughout Russia during the 1950’s, with children the most likely to contract the disease. A vaccine was introduced in 1958 and within five years the number of cases greatly decreased.

The number of diphtheria cases remained low in Russia for over 30 years until a severe outbreak of the disease in the 1990’s. There were almost 40,000 reported cases in 1994 compared to little more than 1,000 cases in 1990.

The only difference between the epidemics is that adults became far more likely to catch the disease in the 1990’s. The same children that were first immunized decades earlier ran low on the antibodies for diphtheria.

This outbreak changed the plan for the diphtheria vaccine in the future. Continue vaccinating children, but keep up immunization by giving booster shots throughout adulthood.

Why Do Some Infections Require Booster Vaccine?

The body remembers how to fight diseases. That’s why vaccines work for long periods of time. The body had the antibodies to fight sickness before and can make them again.

Do you remember us saying that the body needs reminders to fight diseases? That was not an exaggeration, as the body uses immunological memory to remember to create antibodies and fight disease.

But like the rest of the body, this system gets older and slower. The immune system will take longer to create antibodies when exposed to a disease.

If the disease is fast-acting and the antibodies are taking just long enough, then the pathogens win and you get sick.

When Do You Need A Booster Vaccine?

Some diseases are well-known for their annual booster vaccines.

The flu shot is targeted at certain influenza strains present in that year, so a new vaccine is necessary with every annual flu season.

For many other vaccines though, the need for a booster depends on other details. Booster shots may be needed if you were born before a vaccine became a legal requirement or in a region of the world that did not provide the immunization.

Booster vaccines may also be necessary to travel outside of the country. Some diseases that have been eradicated in certain regions, like Polio or Typhoid in the U.S. and Canada, are still active in other parts of the world.

Travel Vaccinations that Require Boosters:

• Hepatitis A
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis A & B
• Japanese Encephalitis
• Meningitis
• Polio (for some individuals)
• Rabies (pre- and post-exposure)
• Typhoid
• Yellow Fever

Routine Vaccinations that Require Boosters:

• Measles, Mumps, Rubella
• Chickenpox
• HPV
• Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis
• Influenza

It is not only important to check if you will need a booster vaccine, but also to remember when it will be needed.

If you are unsure of your vaccination history, consider titer testing to learn if you are immune. Your local Passport Health clinic can help, book your appointment today by calling or schedule online now.

To learn more about these immunization or titer testing, see our vaccinations and titer testing portals.

Have you ever been infected with an illness you thought you were immune to? Share your thoughts on booster vaccines and their importance to your health in our comments section below, on Twitter or via Facebook.

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